Urology

What Is Urology? What Conditions Does It Treat and What Are the Treatment Methods

Urology is a medical specialty that covers the health of the kidneys, bladder, and urinary tract in both men and women. Urologic cancers and pediatric urology are also evaluated under the urology department.

Daviva Health Group Urology Department provides services in all specialty areas, especially urologic cancers (uro-oncology), kidney and urinary tract stone treatment, endoscopic prostate surgery performed with HoLEP technology, and pediatric urology, combining modern surgical methods with a patient-centered approach.

What Is Urology?

Urology, also known colloquially as Bevliye, is both a surgical and medical specialty focused on the urinary tracts of men and women and the male reproductive system. Doctors specialized in urology are called urologists. Urologists treat conditions such as kidney stones, urinary tract infections, bladder cancer, and prostate problems using advanced, minimally invasive techniques such as laser and endoscopic surgery.

What Conditions Does Urology Treat?

Urology treats diseases of the urinary tracts in men and women (kidneys, bladder, ureters, urethra) and the male reproductive system. Common conditions include kidney stones, urinary tract infections (UTIs), urinary incontinence, enlarged prostate, prostate cancer, bladder cancer, testicular cancer, erectile dysfunction, and male infertility.

Kidney and Urinary Tract Stones

Kidney and urinary tract stones are a common problem seen in both men and women. They are usually caused by not drinking enough fluids, but there are also other factors involved in the formation of kidney and urinary tract stones.

Kidney and urinary tract stones are solid, crystal-shaped stones that form in the kidneys due to high concentrations of minerals such as calcium, oxalate, and uric acid, and they can cause very severe pain.

The pain caused by kidney and urinary tract stones may be felt under the ribs and in the back, as well as in the lower abdomen and groin.

Symptoms of kidney and urinary tract stones may also include the following along with pain:

• Nausea and vomiting
• Fever and chills if there is an infection
• Pain during urination
• Urinating more often than usual
• Cloudy or foul-smelling urine

The following approaches may be used in the treatment of kidney and urinary tract stones.

In general, the goal is to pass stones smaller than 5 mm from the body without surgical intervention. For this purpose, along with plenty of water and pain relievers, medications known as alpha blockers may be used to relax the muscles in the ureter and help the stone pass more quickly.

In the treatment of kidney and urinary tract stones that do not pass on their own;

• ESWL, also known as shock wave therapy
• A method called ureteroscopy, in which the stone is reached through the urinary tract
• A surgical procedure called percutaneous nephrolithotomy may be performed.

Urinary Tract Infection

It is a bacterial infection that usually occurs in the bladder or urethra in the urinary system and causes pain, burning, and frequent urination. Urinary tract infection, which is more common in women than in men, can occur in the lower or upper urinary tract, such as bladder inflammation (cystitis), urethral inflammation, and kidney inflammation.

Bladder and urethral infections are both lower urinary tract infections and share some similar symptoms. However, there are differences between them because they affect different parts of the urinary tract.

Symptoms of bladder inflammation (cystitis);

• The urge to urinate frequently
• A very strong urge to urinate even when the bladder is empty
• A feeling that your bladder is full
• Cramping in the abdomen or back
• Strong-smelling or cloudy urine
• Mild fever
• Blood in the urine
• Pain during sexual intercourse

Symptoms of urethral infection:

• Pain or burning during urination
• Difficulty urinating
• Frequent urination
• A very strong urge to urinate even when the bladder is empty
• Itching, discomfort, and pain even when not urinating
• Pain during sexual intercourse
• Blood in your urine
• Discharge from the urethral opening or vagina

In some cases, if a urinary tract infection is not treated or becomes more severe, it can turn into a kidney infection. Kidney infections are very serious and can lead to dangerous complications.

Symptoms of kidney inflammation are as follows:

• Fever
• Chills
• Pain in the back, side, or abdomen
• Nausea
• Vomiting

Drinking plenty of water and taking pain relievers may help relieve symptoms, but the treatment for urinary tract infections is antibiotics.

Urinary Incontinence

Urinary incontinence is a common problem and can range from occasional leakage when laughing, coughing, sneezing, or exercising to a complete loss of bladder control.

There are different types of urinary incontinence:

• Stress urinary incontinence: Small amounts of urine leakage during activities such as coughing, sneezing, laughing, walking, and lifting.
• Urge urinary incontinence: Involuntary urine loss associated with a sudden and strong urge to urinate.
• Overflow urinary incontinence: Leakage occurs when the bladder cannot empty completely and exceeds its capacity.
• Mixed urinary incontinence: A combination of both stress and urge incontinence.

It can be common in women after pregnancy and during menopause, and in men with prostate problems. Excess weight can cause urinary incontinence in both men and women.

In the treatment of urinary incontinence, pelvic floor exercises such as Kegel exercises, weight loss, and reducing caffeine and alcohol intake are among the methods used. Surgical treatment of urinary incontinence is also possible.

What Conditions Does Urology Treat in Men?

Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia

The prostate is a gland that is part of the male reproductive system. This gland begins to enlarge after a certain age. Benign prostatic hyperplasia is a noncancerous condition that causes bothersome urinary problems.

It is a very common problem in men. In some men it may start enlarging early, but prostate enlargement usually begins in middle age. It can cause bothersome symptoms in about 50% of men aged 50-60 and 90% of men over 80.

The symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia can generally be listed as follows:

• Difficulty urinating
• Frequent or urgent need to urinate
• Getting up several times during the night to urinate
• Dribbling at the end of the urine stream and sometimes urinary incontinence
• In advanced enlargement, being unable to urinate at all

These changes in bathroom habits, especially, can affect quality of life by causing limitations in daily activities along with fatigue and insomnia.

Lifestyle changes are primarily recommended in the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia. Going to the toilet at regular intervals during the day even when you do not feel the need to urinate, not delaying urination, maintaining weight control, and eating a balanced and healthy diet can be beneficial in some cases.

Along with these lifestyle changes, the medications recommended by the doctor also form an important part of the treatment.

In suitable patients, surgical methods usually resolve the urinary tract obstruction caused by prostate enlargement very effectively and for a long time.

Varicocele

It is the enlargement of the veins in the testicles in a way similar to varicose veins in the legs. It usually develops in the left testicle.

Varicocele is one of the common causes of low sperm production, low sperm quality, and male infertility. It can also impair testicular development and lead to testicular shrinkage.

Varicocele usually does not cause any symptoms. However, it can sometimes cause pain in the testicle.

The severity of varicocele pain increases with physical exercise and standing for long periods. It tends to worsen later in the day and decreases when lying down and resting. Varicocele progresses over time and becomes noticeable in the testicles. In some cases, there may be shrinkage on the side with the varicocele.

If varicocele does not cause any complaints and does not create a problem regarding having children, it can be followed without treatment. However, it should not be forgotten that varicocele is the most common surgically correctable cause of male infertility. In cases where sperm parameters are impaired and pain is present, varicocele surgery is the only treatment option.

Erectile Dysfunction (Erection Problem)

Erectile dysfunction, or impotence, is the inability to achieve or maintain enough firmness for sexual activity.

Erectile dysfunction is a very common condition, especially in older men.

Conditions that affect blood flow to the penis, such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and diabetes, can cause erection problems. Erectile dysfunction, which can also be caused by hormonal disorders, may also result from psychological causes such as anxiety and depression.

The treatment of erection problems is planned according to whether the problem is psychological or physical.

If the problem is caused by a problem in the blood vessels carrying blood to the penis, medications that control cholesterol and blood pressure may be helpful. In addition, lifestyle changes such as a balanced diet, weight loss, and an active lifestyle can also be used in the treatment of erection problems.

Methods such as medication and vacuum pumps are also among the commonly preferred options in the treatment of erection problems.

In cases where no response is obtained from all treatments, prosthetic surgeries can also be used.

For psychological causes, results may be achieved with therapies such as sex therapy or cognitive behavioral therapy.

Premature Ejaculation

It is a condition in which you have difficulty controlling the timing of orgasm and orgasm occurs too quickly. Premature ejaculation is the most common sexual problem in men. Many men experience premature ejaculation at some point in their lives. Occasional episodes of premature ejaculation are common and are not a cause for concern. However, if this happens more often than normal, it is necessary to consult a specialist.

There can be many different causes of premature ejaculation.

• Prostate problems
• Thyroid disorders
• Depression
• Stress
• Relationship problems
• A previously experienced traumatic sexual encounter can cause premature ejaculation.

Psychological counseling, medication treatments, and pelvic floor exercises such as Kegel exercises are among the methods used in the treatment of premature ejaculation.

Male Infertility

Male infertility, one of the reasons about 50% of couples cannot have children, is defined as the inability to conceive within one year despite unprotected sexual intercourse.

Male infertility can have different causes.

• Problems such as varicocele seen in the testicles
• Blockage in the sperm pathway due to a previous infection
• Hormonal disorders caused by pituitary or hypothalamic disorders
• Smoking
• Obesity can be counted among the causes of male infertility.

However, in nearly half of male infertility cases, the cause cannot be determined.

A diagnosis of male infertility can be made with a physical examination, hormone tests, and a semen test in which sperm are analyzed.

Different methods may be used in the treatment of male infertility depending on the source of the problem.

• Quitting smoking and adopting an active lifestyle is one of the first measures to take.
• If the cause of male infertility is hormonal disorders, hormone therapy may be applied to correct hormonal imbalances.
• Surgical methods are preferred for a problem such as varicocele originating from the testicles.
• In men with no sperm in the semen sample, the Micro-TESE method can be used to search for viable sperm in testicular tissue under a microscope.

What Conditions Does Urology Treat in Women?

Bladder Prolapse

It is a condition in which the bladder sags and bulges toward the vagina as a result of weakening pelvic floor muscles.

The most common causes of bladder prolapse are pregnancy and childbirth. Hormonal changes during pregnancy and childbirth can weaken the pelvic floor muscles. The increased weight due to pregnancy also triggers the condition.

However, pregnancy and childbirth are not the only causes. Menopause, where hormonal balances also change, can lead to bladder prolapse. Constipation, chronic cough, and excess weight are also among the causes of bladder prolapse.

If bladder prolapse is not advanced, it may not cause any symptoms. However, the symptoms of progressing bladder prolapse include;

Discomfort in the vagina, pelvis, lower abdomen, groin, or lower back: Discomfort associated with prolapse is usually described as a feeling of pulling or pain. It may worsen during sexual intercourse or during menstruation.

• A feeling of heaviness or pressure in the vaginal area
• A moist, pink tissue bulge protruding from the vagina
• Urinary incontinence, which may worsen especially with heavy lifting, coughing, laughing, or sneezing.
• Frequent urination
• Urinary tract infections
• Difficulty with bowel movements
• Pain during sexual intercourse, urinary incontinence during sexual intercourse, or inability to orgasm
• Moist discharge

Bladder prolapse treatment may vary depending on the severity of the condition and the problems it causes.

• Strengthening the pelvic muscles with Kegel exercises provides effective results in non-advanced bladder prolapse.
• If constipation is present, treatment for this is important both in preventing bladder prolapse and in preventing the condition from progressing.
• Using proper techniques when lifting heavy objects can likewise prevent bladder prolapse and slow the progression of the existing condition.
• In cases of advanced bladder prolapse, surgical treatment options may be considered.

Recurrent Cystitis

Recurrent cystitis is defined as three or more different bacterial infections confirmed by urine within 12 months or two or more infections within six months. It usually affects young, healthy women.

The causes of recurrent cystitis can be listed as follows;

• Not being fully treated in the previous cystitis episode is the most important factor in recurrence.
• Not emptying the bladder completely can trigger cystitis.
• Poor nutrition plays a truly important role in the development of cystitis or urinary tract infections.
• People who are more prone to cystitis or urinary tract infections need to pay extra attention to vaginal hygiene.
• Disruption of the intestinal flora may allow bacteria that cause cystitis to multiply.

Lifestyle changes and antibiotics are effective in the treatment of cystitis.

Interstitial Cystitis (Painful Bladder Syndrome)

The symptoms of painful bladder syndrome are often confused with urinary tract infections. Although the symptoms are similar, there is no infection in painful bladder syndrome. Despite there being no infection as in urinary tract infection;

• Pelvic pain, pressure, or discomfort is common.
• There is a frequent urge to urinate both during the day and at night.
• Pain felt as the bladder fills and that may go away after urination is among the typical symptoms.

It is usually a condition seen in women, but it can sometimes occur in men as well.

The treatment of painful bladder syndrome, the exact cause of which is unknown, is aimed at managing symptoms more effectively, improving quality of life, and minimizing the discomfort experienced.

Treatment for painful bladder syndrome generally includes the following:

• Changes in diet; avoiding foods that may irritate the bladder, especially caffeine, alcohol, and acidic drinks, may be beneficial.
• Stress management techniques and fluid balance may help reduce the severity and frequency of symptoms.
• Smoking can worsen symptoms. Therefore, getting help to quit may produce positive results.
• Pelvic floor exercises may also be beneficial in controlling bladder function and reducing symptoms.
• The treatment method known as bladder lavage involves filling the bladder with a solution for various periods and then emptying it through a catheter.
• The method called nerve stimulation, in which mild electrical impulses are applied through special devices, may yield positive results.
• In patients who do not benefit from medication, bladder surgeries are among the treatment options.

Urethral Caruncle

Usually occurring after menopause, a urethral caruncle is a benign growth at the urethral opening. This soft tissue growth is usually painless, but it may cause discomfort during urination or sexual intercourse.

It is caused by changes in estrogen levels after menopause and infections.

Although a urethral caruncle usually does not cause symptoms;

• Burning during urination
• Pain during sexual intercourse
• Blood in the urine
• A feeling of pressure in the genital area
• In rare cases, it may cause symptoms such as mild bleeding, burning, and itching in the genital area.

Estrogen creams and surgical methods are among the treatment options in cases where the tissue growth causes a lot of discomfort.

Uro-Oncology (Urologic Cancers)

Uro-oncology, that is, urologic cancers, focuses on the diagnosis, treatment, and management of cancers affecting the urinary system and male reproductive organs. It includes cancers of the prostate, bladder, kidneys, testicles, and ureter.

Prostate Cancer

It is one of the most common types of cancer in men. It is a common malignant tumor of the prostate gland, mostly affecting men over 50. When diagnosed early, encouraging results are obtained in the treatment of prostate cancer.

Prostate cancer may not cause any symptoms in the early stages. Therefore, routine check-ups are of vital importance.

The symptoms of prostate cancer can generally be listed as follows:

• Difficulty urinating; weak or interrupted urine flow
• Inability to empty the bladder completely
• Burning and pain when urinating
• Frequent or urgent need to urinate
• Blood in the urine or semen
• Difficulty with erections
• Back pain
• Weight loss

These symptoms may also be symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia. Therefore, careful differential diagnosis guides treatment.

• Physical examination is important in the diagnosis of prostate cancer. Physical examination of the prostate is performed by digital rectal examination.
• PSA levels, a protein produced by the cells of the prostate gland, are measured with a PSA test. Although PSA values provide insight into prostate cancer, a high value does not mean you have prostate cancer.
• Transrectal ultrasound and Magnetic Resonance (MRI) are imaging methods used in the diagnosis of prostate cancer.
• A definitive diagnosis of prostate cancer is made by biopsy.

Treatment of prostate cancer is planned according to the patient’s age, the stage of the cancer, and the aggressiveness of the cancer.

In elderly patients and in slow-progressing prostate cancers, observation may be preferred. In this case, the patient is checked at regular intervals.

Prostate cancer surgery is known as radical prostatectomy. In radical prostatectomy, the entire prostate is removed. Lymph nodes near the prostate may also be removed during this surgery to see whether the cancer has spread.

Methods such as radiotherapy, chemotherapy, hormone therapy, and immunotherapy are planned according to the patient’s condition.

Bladder Cancer

It usually arises in the lining of the bladder. However, there are also bladder cancers that originate from different tissues within the bladder. Although bladder cancer has a high chance of recurrence, the success rate in its treatment is quite high.

Smoking and chemical exposure are among the most important risk factors for bladder cancer.

The symptoms of bladder cancer can be listed as follows:

• Blood in the urine is the most typical symptom of bladder cancer.
• Frequent urinary tract infections
• Pain in the back area.
• Painful and frequent urination
• Frequent urination

These symptoms do not always mean bladder cancer. Therefore, it is important to consult a doctor specialized in uro-oncology without delay.

Different methods can be used in the treatment of bladder cancer.

If it has not metastasized, that is, if bladder cancer cells have not spread to distant parts of the body, treatment is usually surgery.

If bladder cancer is at an early stage, that is, if it has not spread to the muscle wall, intravesical treatment, known as washing the inside of the bladder with immunotherapy or chemotherapy drugs, may be applied.

In patients whose bladder cancer has spread to the muscle wall, a procedure called radical cystectomy, in which the bladder and adjacent lymph nodes are surgically removed, may be performed.

After surgery, BCG vaccine and chemotherapy may be administered into the bladder through a catheter.

Kidney Cancer

Most kidney cancers begin in the small filtering units inside the kidney called tubules. This type of kidney cancer, called renal cell carcinoma, accounts for nearly 90% of kidney cancers.

Kidney cancer is usually seen in one kidney. However, although rare, it can also develop in both kidneys.

Because the vast majority of kidney cancers are diagnosed before they spread, that is, while still in the kidney, successful results are obtained in their treatment.

The symptoms of kidney cancer are as follows.

• The most common symptom of kidney cancer is blood in the urine.
• Pain in the sides and back area
• Fatigue
• Unexplained weight loss
• Swelling in the ankles or legs

In the diagnosis of kidney cancer, methods such as ultrasound, Computed Tomography (CT), cystoscopy, and biopsy may be used.

The first step in kidney cancer treatment is surgery. Along with the method called radical nephrectomy, in which the entire kidney is removed, partial nephrectomy, that is, kidney-sparing surgery, which involves removing only the tumor-bearing part, may also be performed.

For patients who cannot undergo surgery, cryoablation or radiofrequency ablation, which involves destroying the tumor by freezing it with a special needle, is also among the treatment options.

Testicular Cancer

Although it is usually seen in young men aged 15 - 35, it can occur at any age. Testicular cancer is more common in children whose testicles do not descend into the scrotum during fetal development, that is, those with undescended testicles.

The symptoms of testicular cancer are generally as follows:

• A painless lump or swelling in the testicles is the most common symptom of testicular cancer.
• Changes in the consistency of the testicles
• A feeling of heaviness in the testicles
• A mild pain in the lower abdomen or groin
• Sudden fluid accumulation in the testicular sacs called the scrotum
• Abnormally early appearance of facial and body hair in boys
• Back pain if the cancer spreads

The primary treatment for testicular cancer is surgical removal of the affected testicle. During this procedure, called orchiectomy, an artificial testicular prosthesis may be placed in the scrotum for patients concerned about aesthetics.

After testicular cancer surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy may also be used to prevent recurrence.

Penile Cancer

It is a rare type of cancer. It usually develops from the squamous cells found in the foreskin or head of the penis. Although it is seen more commonly in men over 50, it is a cancer that can occur in men of any age.

Symptoms of penile cancer may include:

A painful or painless swelling on the penis, especially under the foreskin or on the head, lasting longer than 4 weeks.

• Changes in skin color or texture.
• Bleeding or foul-smelling discharge from under the foreskin.
• Difficulty retracting the foreskin.
• Swelling of the lymph nodes in the groin area if the cancer has spread.

The first-line treatment for penile cancer is surgery.

In early stages, removing the cancerous area or the foreskin is common.

In advanced penile cancers, it may be necessary to remove all or part of the penis.

Methods such as laser or cryotherapy may be used in the treatment of early-stage penile cancer.

What Diagnostic Methods Are Used in the Urology Department?

PSA test: A blood test that measures the level of PSA protein produced by the prostate gland and is primarily used for prostate cancer screening. It helps detect elevated levels that may indicate conditions such as cancer, benign prostatic hyperplasia, or inflammation (prostatitis).

Semen Analysis: A standard test performed to assess sperm quality and quantity. It is usually the first test recommended for male infertility.

Kidney Function Tests: A group of blood tests that check how well the kidneys are working. Sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, urea, and creatinine values in the blood are checked in kidney function tests.

Urological Ultrasonography: Urological ultrasonography is a safe and painless diagnostic imaging technique used to examine the kidneys, bladder, ureters, and male reproductive system. It uses high-frequency sound waves to create real-time images. Tumors, stones, infections, and structural problems can be detected with ultrasound imaging.

Magnetic Resonance (MRI): MRI scans are a vital imaging method in the diagnosis and follow-up of a wide range of urological disorders. They provide high-resolution images of surrounding tissues, including benign prostatic hyperplasia, prostate cancer, bladder cancer, and kidney cancer.

Computed Tomography (CT): It supports diagnosis and treatment planning by providing detailed imaging of urological organs and structures. It gives detailed information especially about kidney stones and urinary tract obstruction. In addition, it provides valuable information about tumor diagnosis and staging, detailed images of intra-abdominal vessels, and the extent of damage in kidney or upper urinary tract injuries.

Bone Scintigraphy: In urology, it is primarily used to detect and monitor skeletal metastases originating from prostate cancer. It identifies active bone formation areas to determine the stage of advanced cancers and monitor response to treatment.

Voiding Cystourethrography (VCUG): Voiding cystourethrography, commonly known as a voiding test or voiding kidney film, is generally used in children to obtain detailed images of the bladder and urethra during filling and emptying. It acts as a special, real-time X-ray (fluoroscopy) to diagnose reflux to the kidneys after urinary tract infections and structural problems.

Cystoscopy: This is the examination of the inside of the bladder using a thin, flexible instrument with a camera. It is the best way to thoroughly examine the bladder for tumors and to see whether bladder cancer has recurred. Cystoscopy can also be used to determine how blocked the channel is in prostate enlargement.

Ureteroscopy: A minimally invasive procedure used in the diagnosis and treatment of urinary tract disorders, especially kidney stones. A special camera called a ureteroscope is passed from the bladder into the ureter or kidney, allowing stones to be found, broken up, and removed without an incision.

Prostate Biopsy: It involves taking small tissue samples from the prostate gland using a thin needle. The obtained tissue is then examined under a microscope to check whether it is cancerous. In a prostate biopsy, which takes 10–20 minutes under local anesthesia, the method usually used is the ultrasound-guided transrectal approach (TRUS).

Urodynamics: Provides detailed information about the bladder’s function during both filling and emptying.

Uroflowmetry (Urine Flow Test): A simple, non-invasive diagnostic test that measures the speed, volume, and duration of urine flow and is usually used to assess bladder function and diagnose lower urinary tract problems such as obstruction, prostate enlargement, or urinary incontinence.

What Modern Treatment Methods Are Used in the Urology Department?

Robotic Surgery

In urology, robotic surgery is a minimally invasive surgical technique that uses a robotic system to perform urological procedures. The robotic system consists of a surgeon console, a patient side, and an imaging system. The surgeon sits at the console and controls the robotic arms placed in the patient through small incisions. The imaging system provides the surgeon with a three-dimensional, up to 10x magnified view of the surgical field. Thanks to the use of smaller incisions, the precision of the robotic arms, and advanced imaging technology, successful results can be achieved even in very delicate surgeries.

With the robotic surgery method used in urology;

• Benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostate cancer surgery
• Kidney cancer surgery
• Nephroureterectomy surgery, in which the kidney and ureter are removed
• Cystectomy surgery for bladder removal
• Pyeloplasty surgery to repair strictures in the ureter can be performed.

HoLEP (Holmium Laser Enucleation of the Prostate)

• HOLEP, known colloquially as laser prostate surgery or bloodless prostate surgery, is used in the treatment of benign prostatic enlargement.
• It is a minimally invasive endoscopic surgical procedure in which the prostate is reduced in size using laser energy in surgeries for benign prostatic enlargement.
• Because it uses laser energy, it offers a bloodless alternative to open surgery in the treatment of prostate enlargement of any size.
• While traditional prostate surgery involves skin incisions, no incision is needed in HoLEP.
• HoLEP provides faster recovery and symptom relief compared with traditional prostate surgery.

Laparoscopic Surgery (Closed Surgeries)

Instead of the large incisions used in traditional open surgery, laparoscopic surgery is performed through several small openings made in the abdominal area. Because large incisions are not used, this method is commonly known among the public as closed surgery.

Because the incisions are small, less harm is done to the body compared with open surgery and the risk of complications is minimized.

Laparoscopy is the most common type of minimally invasive surgery used to operate on organs in the abdominal cavity and pelvis.

Laparoscopic surgeries have a very wide range of uses in urology.

• Kidney Cancer (Radical or Partial Nephrectomy)
• Ureteropelvic Junction Obstruction (UPJ Obstruction / Pyeloplasty)
• Prostate Cancer (Radical Prostatectomy)
• Adrenal Gland (Suprarenal) Tumors
• Nonfunctioning Kidneys (Removal of Atrophic Kidney)
• Kidney Cysts (Cyst Decortication)
• Bladder Cancer (Radical Cystectomy)
• Varicocele (Laparoscopic Varicocelectomy)
• Kidney Prolapse (Nephropexy)
• Lymph Node Dissection After Testicular Cancer (RPLND)
• Ureter Stones and Strictures (Ureterolithotomy or Ureteral Reimplantation)